Ackland, Graeme J., and A. Jamie Wood. “Emergent patterns in space and time from daisyworld: a simple evolving coupled biosphere–climate model.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 368, no. 1910 (2010): 161-179.
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We present a simplified model of a coupled planetary geosphere–biosphere, with two evolving species coupled through a single enviromental variable. The species do not compete directly, but instead compete through, and can evolve their effect on, this environmental parameter. The model produces an evolutionary arms race, with each species evolving extreme behaviour to counteract the other. The result is an apparently stable balance, with the planet supporting a maximum amount of life, in unusually patterned configurations. However, this balance is achieved by two countering effects and is susceptible to very large correlated fluctuations and extinction events if the balance is disturbed. This arms-race evolution is observed even for very small differences between the species: for a coupled evolving system, the ‘neutral’ theory of identical species is not the limiting case.